| Rust custom data types are formed mainly through the two keywords: struct: define a structureenum: define an enumeration
Constants can also be created via the const and static keywords. StructuresThere are three types of structures ("structs") that can be created using the struct keyword: - Tuple structs, which are, basically, named tuples.
- The classic C structs
- Unit structs, which are field-less, are useful for generics.
// An attribute to hide warnings for unused code.
#![allow(dead_code)]
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Person {
name: String,
age: u8,
}
// A unit struct
struct Unit;
// A tuple struct
struct Pair(i32, f32);
// A struct with two fields
struct Point {
x: f32,
y: f32,
}
// Structs can be reused as fields of another struct
struct Rectangle {
// A rectangle can be specified by where the top left and bottom right
// corners are in space.
top_left: Point,
bottom_right: Point,
}
fn main() {
// Create struct with field init shorthand
let name = String::from("Peter");
let age = 27;
let peter = Person { name, age };
// Print debug struct
println!("{:?}", peter);
// Instantiate a `Point`
let point: Point = Point { x: 10.3, y: 0.4 };
let another_point: Point = Point { x: 5.2, y: 0.2 };
// Access the fields of the point
println!("point coordinates: ({}, {})", point.x, point.y);
// Make a new point by using struct update syntax to use the fields of our
// other one
let bottom_right = Point { x: 5.2, ..another_point };
// `bottom_right.y` will be the same as `another_point.y` because we used that field
// from `another_point`
println!("second point: ({}, {})", bottom_right.x, bottom_right.y);
// Destructure the point using a `let` binding
let Point { x: left_edge, y: top_edge } = point;
let _rectangle = Rectangle {
// struct instantiation is an expression too
top_left: Point { x: left_edge, y: top_edge },
bottom_right: bottom_right,
};
// Instantiate a unit struct
let _unit = Unit;
// Instantiate a tuple struct
let pair = Pair(1, 0.1);
// Access the fields of a tuple struct
println!("pair contains {:?} and {:?}", pair.0, pair.1);
// Destructure a tuple struct
let Pair(integer, decimal) = pair;
println!("pair contains {:?} and {:?}", integer, decimal);
}
EnumsThe enum keyword allows the creation of a type which may be one of a few different variants. Any variant which is valid as a struct is also valid in an enum. // Create an `enum` to classify a web event. Note how both
// names and type information together specify the variant:
// `PageLoad != PageUnload` and `KeyPress(char) != Paste(String)`.
// Each is different and independent.
enum WebEvent {
// An `enum` variant may either be `unit-like`,
PageLoad,
PageUnload,
// like tuple structs,
KeyPress(char),
Paste(String),
// or c-like structures.
Click { x: i64, y: i64 },
}
// A function which takes a `WebEvent` enum as an argument and
// returns nothing.
fn inspect(event: WebEvent) {
match event {
WebEvent::PageLoad => println!("page loaded"),
WebEvent::PageUnload => println!("page unloaded"),
// Destructure `c` from inside the `enum` variant.
WebEvent::KeyPress(c) => println!("pressed '{}'.", c),
WebEvent::Paste(s) => println!("pasted "{}".", s),
// Destructure `Click` into `x` and `y`.
WebEvent::Click { x, y } => {
println!("clicked at x={}, y={}.", x, y);
},
}
}
fn main() {
let pressed = WebEvent::KeyPress('x');
// `to_owned()` creates an owned `String` from a string slice.
let pasted = WebEvent::Paste("my text".to_owned());
let click = WebEvent::Click { x: 20, y: 80 };
let load = WebEvent::PageLoad;
let unload = WebEvent::PageUnload;
inspect(pressed);
inspect(pasted);
inspect(click);
inspect(load);
inspect(unload);
}
useThe use declaration can be used so manual scoping isn't needed: // An attribute to hide warnings for unused code.
#![allow(dead_code)]
enum Stage {
Beginner,
Advanced,
}
enum Role {
Student,
Teacher,
}
fn main() {
// Explicitly `use` each name so they are available without
// manual scoping.
use crate::Stage::{Beginner, Advanced};
// Automatically `use` each name inside `Role`.
use crate::Role::*;
// Equivalent to `Stage::Beginner`.
let stage = Beginner;
// Equivalent to `Role::Student`.
let role = Student;
match stage {
// Note the lack of scoping because of the explicit `use` above.
Beginner => println!("Beginners are starting their learning journey!"),
Advanced => println!("Advanced learners are mastering their subjects..."),
}
match role {
// Note again the lack of scoping.
Student => println!("Students are acquiring knowledge!"),
Teacher => println!("Teachers are spreading knowledge!"),
}
}
C-likeenum can also be used as C-like enums.
// An attribute to hide warnings for unused code.
#![allow(dead_code)]
// enum with implicit discriminator (starts at 0)
enum Number {
Zero,
One,
Two,
}
// enum with explicit discriminator
enum Color {
Red = 0xff0000,
Green = 0x00ff00,
Blue = 0x0000ff,
}
fn main() {
// `enums` can be cast as integers.
println!("zero is {}", Number::Zero as i32);
println!("one is {}", Number::One as i32);
println!("roses are #{:06x}", Color::Red as i32);
println!("violets are #{:06x}", Color::Blue as i32);
}
Testcase: linked-list
A common way to implement a linked-list is via enums: use crate::List::*;
enum List {
// Cons: Tuple struct that wraps an element and a pointer to the next node
Cons(u32, Box<List>),
// Nil: A node that signifies the end of the linked list
Nil,
}
// Methods can be attached to an enum
impl List {
// Create an empty list
fn new() -> List {
// `Nil` has type `List`
Nil
}
// Consume a list, and return the same list with a new element at its front
fn prepend(self, elem: u32) -> List {
// `Cons` also has type List
Cons(elem, Box::new(self))
}
// Return the length of the list
fn len(&self) -> u32 {
// `self` has to be matched, because the behavior of this method
// depends on the variant of `self`
// `self` has type `&List`, and `*self` has type `List`, matching on a
// concrete type `T` is preferred over a match on a reference `&T`
// after Rust 2018 you can use self here and tail (with no ref) below as well,
// rust will infer &s and ref tail.
// See https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/rust-2018/ownership-and-lifetimes/default-match-bindings.html
match *self {
// Can't take ownership of the tail, because `self` is borrowed;
// instead take a reference to the tail
Cons(_, ref tail) => 1 + tail.len(),
// Base Case: An empty list has zero length
Nil => 0
}
}
// Return representation of the list as a (heap allocated) string
fn stringify(&self) -> String {
match *self {
Cons(head, ref tail) => {
// `format!` is similar to `print!`, but returns a heap
// allocated string instead of printing to the console
format!("{}, {}", head, tail.stringify())
},
Nil => {
format!("Nil")
},
}
}
}
fn main() {
// Create an empty linked list
let mut list = List::new();
// Prepend some elements
list = list.prepend(1);
list = list.prepend(2);
list = list.prepend(3);
// Show the final state of the list
println!("linked list has length: {}", list.len());
println!("{}", list.stringify());
}
constantsRust has two different types of constants which can be declared in any scope including global. Both require explicit type annotation: const: An unchangeable value (the common case).static: A possibly mutable variable with 'static lifetime. The static lifetime is inferred and does not have to be specified. Accessing or modifying a mutable static variable is unsafe.
// Globals are declared outside all other scopes.
static LANGUAGE: &str = "Rust";
const THRESHOLD: i32 = 10;
fn is_big(n: i32) -> bool {
// Access constant in some function
n > THRESHOLD
}
fn main() {
let n = 16;
// Access constant in the main thread
println!("This is {}", LANGUAGE);
println!("The threshold is {}", THRESHOLD);
println!("{} is {}", n, if is_big(n) { "big" } else { "small" });
// Error! Cannot modify a `const`.
THRESHOLD = 5;
// FIXME ^ Comment out this line
}
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